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Record Information |
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Version | 4.0 |
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Status | Detected and Quantified |
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Creation Date | 2005-11-16 15:48:42 UTC |
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Update Date | 2021-02-25 19:53:37 UTC |
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HMDB ID | HMDB0000201 |
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Secondary Accession Numbers | - HMDB0000456
- HMDB0000515
- HMDB00201
- HMDB00456
- HMDB00515
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Metabolite Identification |
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Common Name | L-Acetylcarnitine |
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Description | L-Acetylcarnitine (ALCAR or ALC) is an acetic acid ester of carnitine that facilitates the movement of acetyl-CoA into the matrices of mammalian mitochondria during the oxidation of fatty acids. In addition to his metabolic role, L-acetylcarnitine posses unique neuroprotective, neuromodulatory, and neurotrophic properties. This may play an important role in counteracting various disease processes (PMID: 15363640 ). L-Acetylcarnitine has been identified in the human placenta (PMID: 32033212 ). |
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Structure | |
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Synonyms | Value | Source |
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(-)-Acetylcarnitine | ChEBI | (R)-Acetylcarnitine | ChEBI | Acetyl-L-(-)-carnitine | ChEBI | Acetyl-L-carnitine | ChEBI | L-Acetylcarnitine | ChEBI | L-Carnitine acetyl ester | ChEBI | L-O-Acetylcarnitine | ChEBI | O-Acetyl-(R)-carnitine | ChEBI | R-Acetylcarnitine | ChEBI | Branigen | MeSH, HMDB | Levocarnitine acetyl | MeSH, HMDB | Acetyl carnitine | MeSH, HMDB | Carnitine, acetyl | MeSH, HMDB | Alcar | MeSH, HMDB | Acetyl L carnitine | MeSH, HMDB | Acetylcarnitine, (R)-isomer | MeSH, HMDB | Medosan | MeSH, HMDB | ALC | HMDB | 3-(Acetyloxy)-4-(trimethylammonio)butanoate | ChEBI, HMDB | Acetyl-DL-carnitine | ChEBI, HMDB | Acetylcarnitine | ChEBI, HMDB | DL-O-Acetylcarnitine | ChEBI, HMDB | 3-(Acetyloxy)-4-(trimethylammonio)butanoic acid | Generator, HMDB | (+-)-Acetylcarnitine | HMDB | Acetyl-carnitine | HMDB | ALCAR | HMDB | Nicetile | HMDB | O-Acetyl-L-carnitine | HMDB | O-Acetylcarnitine | HMDB | (3R)-3-Acetyloxy-4-(trimethylazaniumyl)butanoate | HMDB | C2 Carnitine | HMDB |
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Chemical Formula | C9H18NO4 |
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Average Molecular Weight | 204.2435 |
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Monoisotopic Molecular Weight | 204.123583069 |
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IUPAC Name | (3R)-3-(acetyloxy)-4-(trimethylazaniumyl)butanoate |
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Traditional Name | acetyl-L-carnitine |
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CAS Registry Number | 3040-38-8 |
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SMILES | CC(=O)O[C@H](CC(O)=O)C[N+](C)(C)C |
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InChI Identifier | InChI=1S/C9H17NO4/c1-7(11)14-8(5-9(12)13)6-10(2,3)4/h8H,5-6H2,1-4H3/p+1/t8-/m1/s1 |
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InChI Key | RDHQFKQIGNGIED-MRVPVSSYSA-O |
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Chemical Taxonomy |
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Description | belongs to the class of organic compounds known as acyl carnitines. These are organic compounds containing a fatty acid with the carboxylic acid attached to carnitine through an ester bond. |
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Kingdom | Organic compounds |
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Super Class | Lipids and lipid-like molecules |
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Class | Fatty Acyls |
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Sub Class | Fatty acid esters |
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Direct Parent | Acyl carnitines |
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Alternative Parents | |
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Substituents | - Acyl-carnitine
- Dicarboxylic acid or derivatives
- Tetraalkylammonium salt
- Quaternary ammonium salt
- Carboxylic acid ester
- Carboxylic acid salt
- Carboxylic acid derivative
- Carboxylic acid
- Organic nitrogen compound
- Organooxygen compound
- Organonitrogen compound
- Organic salt
- Hydrocarbon derivative
- Organic oxide
- Organopnictogen compound
- Organic oxygen compound
- Carbonyl group
- Amine
- Aliphatic acyclic compound
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Molecular Framework | Aliphatic acyclic compounds |
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External Descriptors | |
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Ontology |
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Physiological effect | Health effect: |
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Disposition | Route of exposure: Source: Biological location: |
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Process | Naturally occurring process: |
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Role | Industrial application: Biological role: |
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Physical Properties |
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State | Solid |
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Experimental Properties | Property | Value | Reference |
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Melting Point | 145 °C | Not Available | Boiling Point | Not Available | Not Available | Water Solubility | Not Available | Not Available | LogP | Not Available | Not Available |
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Predicted Properties | |
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Spectra |
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| Spectrum Type | Description | Splash Key | View |
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Predicted GC-MS | Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positive | splash10-00di-9100000000-c3bf4495e8c4abf714db | Spectrum | LC-MS/MS | LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 10V, N/A (Annotated) | splash10-000i-9200000000-e3a84538f1dadc72bc00 | Spectrum | LC-MS/MS | LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 25V, N/A (Annotated) | splash10-000i-9000000000-5d5d6858632925cf1c81 | Spectrum | LC-MS/MS | LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 40V, N/A (Annotated) | splash10-001i-9000000000-b7dbd311ea9af892ad91 | Spectrum | LC-MS/MS | LC-MS/MS Spectrum - , positive | splash10-0pb9-3930000000-1af0468e51346890699f | Spectrum | 1D NMR | 1H NMR Spectrum | Not Available | Spectrum | 1D NMR | 1H NMR Spectrum | Not Available | Spectrum | 1D NMR | 13C NMR Spectrum | Not Available | Spectrum | 2D NMR | [1H,13C] 2D NMR Spectrum | Not Available | Spectrum |
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Biological Properties |
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Cellular Locations | - Cytoplasm
- Extracellular
- Membrane
- Mitochondria
- Endoplasmic reticulum
- Peroxisome
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Biospecimen Locations | - Blood
- Breast Milk
- Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
- Feces
- Saliva
- Urine
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Tissue Locations | - Brain
- Neuron
- Placenta
- Prostate
- Semen
- Skeletal Muscle
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Pathways | |
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Normal Concentrations |
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Blood | Detected and Quantified | 5.48 +/- 2.15 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 16.540 +/- 3.340 uM | Infant (0-1 year old) | Not Specified | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 3.00-12.5 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 3.57 (2.91-4.48) uM | Newborn (0-30 days old) | Not Available | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 4.09 +/- 5.83 uM | Children (1-13 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 1.30 +/- 0.81 uM | Children (1-13 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 6.26 (5.14-7.83) uM | Infant (0-1 year old) | Not Available | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 8.05(3.22) uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 3.00-12.5 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 6.2 +/- 0.6 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Male | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 5.7 +/- 0.7 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Female | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 6.56 +/- 2.26 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 4.90 (2.48-8.62) uM | Children (1-13 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Breast Milk | Detected and Quantified | 10.5 +/- 4.7 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Female | Normal | | details | Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) | Detected and Quantified | 0.322 +/- 0.148 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Not Specified | Normal | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Feces | Detected and Quantified | 0.69 +/- 0.33 nmol/g wet feces | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Feces | Detected and Quantified | 0.39 +/- 0.2 nmol/g wet feces | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Children (6 - 18 years old) | Not Specified | Normal | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Saliva | Detected and Quantified | 0.973 +/- 0.002 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Saliva | Detected and Quantified | 0.843 +/- 0.441 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Male | Normal | | details | Saliva | Detected and Quantified | 0.955 +/- 0.442 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Female | Normal | | details | Saliva | Detected and Quantified | 1.53 +/- 1.23 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Female | Normal | | details | Saliva | Detected and Quantified | 1.68 +/- 0.780 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Female | Normal | | details | Saliva | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Not Specified | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Male | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Male | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 0.38-1.86 umol/mmol creatinine | Newborn (0-30 days old) | Both | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 0.85 +/- 0.38 umol/mmol creatinine | Newborn (0-30 days old) | Female | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 0.92 +/- 0.39 umol/mmol creatinine | Newborn (0-30 days old) | Male | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 4.468 +/- 3.521 umol/mmol creatinine | Children (1 - 13 years old) | Not Specified | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 2.0 (0.4-5.9) umol/mmol creatinine | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 2.8 (0.6-7.5) umol/mmol creatinine | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 7.2058 +/- 6.0635 umol/mmol creatinine | Children (1 - 13 years old) | Not Specified | Normal | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 1.928 +/- 0.2829 umol/mmol creatinine | Adult (>18 years old) | Female | Normal | | details |
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Abnormal Concentrations |
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Blood | Detected and Quantified | 26.700 +/- 9.700 uM | Infant (0-1 year old) | Not Specified | short-chain L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 27.740 +/- 9.800 uM | Infant (0-1 year old) | Female | 3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (SCHAD) | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 26.400 +/- 9.700 uM | Infant (0-1 year old) | Not Specified | Short-chain L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency | | details | Blood | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Colorectal cancer | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 2.83 +/- 4.08 uM | Children (1-13 years old) | Both | Acetaminophen overdose | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 2.5022 (2.2864) uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Female | Pregnancy with fetus having congenital heart defect | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 10.28(3.49) uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 800 +/- 200 uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | 3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA Carboxylase Deficiency | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 0.316 (0.091-0.760) uM | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Very long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (vLCAD) | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 6.82 +/- 3.64 uM | Children (1-13 years old) | Both | Obesity | | details | Blood | Detected and Quantified | 6.79 +/- 2.28 uM | Children (1-13 years old) | Both | Obesity | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Children (6 - 18 years old) | Not Specified | Crohns disease | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Children (6 - 18 years old) | Not Specified | Ulcerative colitis | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Children (6 - 18 years old) | Not Specified | Unclassified IBD | | details | Feces | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Colorectal cancer | | details | Saliva | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Male | Attachment loss | | details | Saliva | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Male | Periodontal Probing Depth | | details | Saliva | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Male | Tooth Decay | | details | Urine | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Colorectal adenoma | | details | Urine | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Colorectal adenoma | | details | Urine | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Bladder cancer | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 9.443 +/- 12.772 umol/mmol creatinine | Children (1 - 13 years old) | Not Specified | Eosinophilic esophagitis | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 6.5552 +/- 13.7484 umol/mmol creatinine | Children (1 - 13 years old) | Not Specified | Eosinophilic esophagitis | | details | Urine | Detected but not Quantified | Not Quantified | Adult (>18 years old) | Both | Colorectal cancer | | details | Urine | Detected and Quantified | 6.3512 +/- 10.4433 umol/mmol creatinine | Children (1 - 13 years old) | Not Specified | Gastroesophageal reflux disease | | details |
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Associated Disorders and Diseases |
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Disease References | Very Long Chain Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency |
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- Costa CG, Struys EA, Bootsma A, ten Brink HJ, Dorland L, Tavares de Almeida I, Duran M, Jakobs C: Quantitative analysis of plasma acylcarnitines using gas chromatography chemical ionization mass fragmentography. J Lipid Res. 1997 Jan;38(1):173-82. [PubMed:9034211 ]
| Colorectal cancer |
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- Ni Y, Xie G, Jia W: Metabonomics of human colorectal cancer: new approaches for early diagnosis and biomarker discovery. J Proteome Res. 2014 Sep 5;13(9):3857-70. doi: 10.1021/pr500443c. Epub 2014 Aug 14. [PubMed:25105552 ]
- Goedert JJ, Sampson JN, Moore SC, Xiao Q, Xiong X, Hayes RB, Ahn J, Shi J, Sinha R: Fecal metabolomics: assay performance and association with colorectal cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2014 Sep;35(9):2089-96. doi: 10.1093/carcin/bgu131. Epub 2014 Jul 18. [PubMed:25037050 ]
| 3-Methyl-crotonyl-glycinuria |
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- Thomsen JA, Lund AM, Olesen JH, Mohr M, Rasmussen J: Is L-Carnitine Supplementation Beneficial in 3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA Carboxylase Deficiency? JIMD Rep. 2015;21:79-88. doi: 10.1007/8904_2014_393. Epub 2015 Mar 3. [PubMed:25732994 ]
| Obesity |
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- Simone Wahl, Christina Holzapfel, Zhonghao Yu, Michaela Breier, Ivan Kondofersky, Christiane Fuchs, Paula Singmann, Cornelia Prehn, Jerzy Adamski, Harald Grallert, Thomas Illig, Rui Wang-Sattler, Thomas Reinehr (2013). Metabolomics reveals determinants of weight loss during lifestyle intervention in obese children. Metabolomics.
| Short-chain L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency |
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- Clayton PT, Eaton S, Aynsley-Green A, Edginton M, Hussain K, Krywawych S, Datta V, Malingre HE, Berger R, van den Berg IE: Hyperinsulinism in short-chain L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency reveals the importance of beta-oxidation in insulin secretion. J Clin Invest. 2001 Aug;108(3):457-65. [PubMed:11489939 ]
| 3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency |
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- Clayton PT, Eaton S, Aynsley-Green A, Edginton M, Hussain K, Krywawych S, Datta V, Malingre HE, Berger R, van den Berg IE: Hyperinsulinism in short-chain L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency reveals the importance of beta-oxidation in insulin secretion. J Clin Invest. 2001 Aug;108(3):457-65. [PubMed:11489939 ]
| Crohn's disease |
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- Kolho KL, Pessia A, Jaakkola T, de Vos WM, Velagapudi V: Faecal and Serum Metabolomics in Paediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J Crohns Colitis. 2017 Mar 1;11(3):321-334. doi: 10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjw158. [PubMed:27609529 ]
| Ulcerative colitis |
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- Kolho KL, Pessia A, Jaakkola T, de Vos WM, Velagapudi V: Faecal and Serum Metabolomics in Paediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J Crohns Colitis. 2017 Mar 1;11(3):321-334. doi: 10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjw158. [PubMed:27609529 ]
| Attachment loss |
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- Liebsch C, Pitchika V, Pink C, Samietz S, Kastenmuller G, Artati A, Suhre K, Adamski J, Nauck M, Volzke H, Friedrich N, Kocher T, Holtfreter B, Pietzner M: The Saliva Metabolome in Association to Oral Health Status. J Dent Res. 2019 Jun;98(6):642-651. doi: 10.1177/0022034519842853. Epub 2019 Apr 26. [PubMed:31026179 ]
| Periodontal Probing Depth |
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- Liebsch C, Pitchika V, Pink C, Samietz S, Kastenmuller G, Artati A, Suhre K, Adamski J, Nauck M, Volzke H, Friedrich N, Kocher T, Holtfreter B, Pietzner M: The Saliva Metabolome in Association to Oral Health Status. J Dent Res. 2019 Jun;98(6):642-651. doi: 10.1177/0022034519842853. Epub 2019 Apr 26. [PubMed:31026179 ]
| Tooth Decay |
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- Liebsch C, Pitchika V, Pink C, Samietz S, Kastenmuller G, Artati A, Suhre K, Adamski J, Nauck M, Volzke H, Friedrich N, Kocher T, Holtfreter B, Pietzner M: The Saliva Metabolome in Association to Oral Health Status. J Dent Res. 2019 Jun;98(6):642-651. doi: 10.1177/0022034519842853. Epub 2019 Apr 26. [PubMed:31026179 ]
| Eosinophilic esophagitis |
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- (). Mordechai, Hien, and David S. Wishart. .
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Associated OMIM IDs | - 201475 (Very Long Chain Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency)
- 114500 (Colorectal cancer)
- 210200 (3-Methyl-crotonyl-glycinuria)
- 601665 (Obesity)
- 231530 (3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency)
- 266600 (Crohn's disease)
- 610247 (Eosinophilic esophagitis)
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External Links |
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DrugBank ID | DB08842 |
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Phenol Explorer Compound ID | Not Available |
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FooDB ID | FDB093666 |
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KNApSAcK ID | Not Available |
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Chemspider ID | 5406074 |
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KEGG Compound ID | C02571 |
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BioCyc ID | O-ACETYLCARNITINE |
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BiGG ID | Not Available |
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Wikipedia Link | Acetyl-L-carnitine |
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METLIN ID | Not Available |
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PubChem Compound | 7045767 |
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PDB ID | Not Available |
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ChEBI ID | 57589 |
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Food Biomarker Ontology | Not Available |
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VMH ID | ACRN |
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MarkerDB ID | MDB00000096 |
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References |
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Synthesis Reference | Gu, Heng-da; Shi, Shuang; Yang, Ying; Shi, Zhao-xin; Yu, Zhan-long. Synthesis of acetyl-L-carnitine by direct acylation method. Shenyang Huagong Xueyuan Xuebao (2006), 20(2), 154-155, 160. |
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Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) | Not Available |
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General References | - Sakuma T: Alteration of urinary carnitine profile induced by benzoate administration. Arch Dis Child. 1991 Jul;66(7):873-5. [PubMed:1863104 ]
- Grizard G, Lombard-Vignon N, Boucher D: Changes in carnitine and acetylcarnitine in human semen during cryopreservation. Hum Reprod. 1992 Oct;7(9):1245-8. [PubMed:1479006 ]
- Kamimori H, Hamashima Y, Konishi M: Determination of carnitine and saturated-acyl group carnitines in human urine by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Anal Biochem. 1994 May 1;218(2):417-24. [PubMed:8074302 ]
- Cooper MB, Forte CA, Jones DA: Citrate interference with the determination of acetylcarnitine: a method for its elimination. Clin Chim Acta. 1986 Sep 30;159(3):291-9. [PubMed:3769216 ]
- Spagnoli A, Lucca U, Menasce G, Bandera L, Cizza G, Forloni G, Tettamanti M, Frattura L, Tiraboschi P, Comelli M, et al.: Long-term acetyl-L-carnitine treatment in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 1991 Nov;41(11):1726-32. [PubMed:1944900 ]
- Brooks DE: Carnitine, acetylcarnitine and the activity of carnitine acyltransferases in seminal plasma and spermatozoa of men, rams and rats. J Reprod Fertil. 1979 Jul;56(2):667-73. [PubMed:480318 ]
- Inoue F, Terada N, Nakajima H, Okochi M, Kodo N, Kizaki Z, Kinugasa A, Sawada T: Effect of sports activity on carnitine metabolism. Measurement of free carnitine, gamma-butyrobetaine and acylcarnitines by tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl. 1999 Aug 6;731(1):83-8. [PubMed:10491992 ]
- Niu YJ, Jiang ZM, Shu H, Li CF, Liu W, Yao GX, Jiang J, Li JQ, Longo A: [Assay of carnitine in plasma and urine of healthy adults]. Zhongguo Yi Xue Ke Xue Yuan Xue Bao. 2002 Apr;24(2):185-7. [PubMed:12905800 ]
- Siliprandi N, Di Lisa F, Pieralisi G, Ripari P, Maccari F, Menabo R, Giamberardino MA, Vecchiet L: Metabolic changes induced by maximal exercise in human subjects following L-carnitine administration. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1990 Apr 23;1034(1):17-21. [PubMed:2328258 ]
- Marzo A, Cardace G, Corbelleta C, Bassani E, Morabito E, Arrigoni Martelli E: Homeostatic equilibrium of L-carnitine family before and after i.v. administration of propionyl-L-carnitine in humans, dogs and rats. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 1991;Spec No 3:357-63. [PubMed:1820908 ]
- Novak M, Wieser PB, Buch M, Hahn P: Acetylcarnitine and free carnitine in body fluids before and after birth. Pediatr Res. 1979 Jan;13(1):10-5. [PubMed:571081 ]
- Battistin L, Pizzolato G, Dam M, Da Col C, Perlotto N, Saitta B, Borsato N, Calvani M, Ferlin G: Single-photon emission computed tomography studies with 99mTc-hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime in dementia: effects of acute administration of L-acetylcarnitine. Eur Neurol. 1989;29(5):261-5. [PubMed:2792144 ]
- Deufel T: Determination of L-carnitine in biological fluids and tissues. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1990 May;28(5):307-11. [PubMed:2380667 ]
- Minkler PE, Hoppel CL: Quantification of free carnitine, individual short- and medium-chain acylcarnitines, and total carnitine in plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography. Anal Biochem. 1993 Aug 1;212(2):510-8. [PubMed:8214594 ]
- Bruno G, Scaccianoce S, Bonamini M, Patacchioli FR, Cesarino F, Grassini P, Sorrentino E, Angelucci L, Lenzi GL: Acetyl-L-carnitine in Alzheimer disease: a short-term study on CSF neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 1995 Fall;9(3):128-31. [PubMed:8534410 ]
- Pace S, Longo A, Toon S, Rolan P, Evans AM: Pharmacokinetics of propionyl-L-carnitine in humans: evidence for saturable tubular reabsorption. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2000 Nov;50(5):441-8. [PubMed:11069438 ]
- De Rosa M, Boggia B, Amalfi B, Zarrilli S, Vita A, Colao A, Lombardi G: Correlation between seminal carnitine and functional spermatozoal characteristics in men with semen dysfunction of various origins. Drugs R D. 2005;6(1):1-9. [PubMed:15801863 ]
- Zanelli SA, Solenski NJ, Rosenthal RE, Fiskum G: Mechanisms of ischemic neuroprotection by acetyl-L-carnitine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2005 Aug;1053:153-61. [PubMed:16179519 ]
- Kuratsune H, Yamaguti K, Lindh G, Evengard B, Hagberg G, Matsumura K, Iwase M, Onoe H, Takahashi M, Machii T, Kanakura Y, Kitani T, Langstrom B, Watanabe Y: Brain regions involved in fatigue sensation: reduced acetylcarnitine uptake into the brain. Neuroimage. 2002 Nov;17(3):1256-65. [PubMed:12414265 ]
- Gray SC, Devito G, Nimmo MA: Effect of active warm-up on metabolism prior to and during intense dynamic exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002 Dec;34(12):2091-6. [PubMed:12471321 ]
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