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Record Information
Version5.0
StatusDetected and Quantified
Creation Date2006-08-13 08:42:22 UTC
Update Date2022-03-07 02:49:20 UTC
HMDB IDHMDB0003993
Secondary Accession Numbers
  • HMDB0240574
  • HMDB03993
Metabolite Identification
Common Namealpha-Carotene
Descriptionalpha-Carotene belongs to the class of organic compounds known as carotenes. These are a type of unsaturated hydrocarbons containing eight consecutive isoprene units. They are characterized by the presence of two end-groups (mostly cyclohexene rings, but also cyclopentene rings or acyclic groups) linked by a long branched alkyl chain. alpha-Carotene is considered to be an isoprenoid lipid molecule. alpha-Carotene is one of the primary isomers of carotene. Plasma levels of alpha-carotene are positively associated with the detection rate of AFB1-DNA adducts in a dose-dependent manner, whereas plasma lycopene level was inversely related to the presence of the adducts in urine (PMID: 9214602 ).
Structure
Data?1593034854
Synonyms
ValueSource
(+)-alpha-CaroteneChEBI
alpha-Carotene (natural)ChEBI
(+)-a-CaroteneGenerator
(+)-Α-caroteneGenerator
a-Carotene (natural)Generator
Α-carotene (natural)Generator
a-CaroteneGenerator
Α-caroteneGenerator
alpha-Carotene, (6'r)-isomerMeSH
CarotenesMeSH
CarotenoidsMeSH
alpha-CaroteneMeSH
(6'R)-alpha-CaroteneHMDB
(6'R)-beta,epsilon-CaroteneHMDB
(6'R)-α-CaroteneHMDB
(6'R)-β,ε-CaroteneHMDB
(6’R)-α-CaroteneHMDB
(6’R)-β,ε-CaroteneHMDB
all-trans-alpha-CaroteneHMDB
all-trans-α-CaroteneHMDB
α-Carotene, (6’R)-isomerHMDB
Chemical FormulaC40H56
Average Molecular Weight536.8726
Monoisotopic Molecular Weight536.438201792
IUPAC Name(6R)-1,5,5-trimethyl-6-[(1E,3E,5E,7E,9E,11E,13E,15E,17E)-3,7,12,16-tetramethyl-18-(2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-en-1-yl)octadeca-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17-nonaen-1-yl]cyclohex-1-ene
Traditional Namehi-α
CAS Registry Number7488-99-5
SMILES
C\C(\C=C\C=C(/C)\C=C\[C@H]1C(C)=CCCC1(C)C)=C/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C1=C(C)CCCC1(C)C
InChI Identifier
InChI=1S/C40H56/c1-31(19-13-21-33(3)25-27-37-35(5)23-15-29-39(37,7)8)17-11-12-18-32(2)20-14-22-34(4)26-28-38-36(6)24-16-30-40(38,9)10/h11-14,17-23,25-28,37H,15-16,24,29-30H2,1-10H3/b12-11+,19-13+,20-14+,27-25+,28-26+,31-17+,32-18+,33-21+,34-22+/t37-/m0/s1
InChI KeyANVAOWXLWRTKGA-NTXLUARGSA-N
Chemical Taxonomy
Description Belongs to the class of organic compounds known as carotenes. These are a type of unsaturated hydrocarbons containing eight consecutive isoprene units. They are characterized by the presence of two end-groups (mostly cyclohexene rings, but also cyclopentene rings or acyclic groups) linked by a long branched alkyl chain. Carotenes belonging form a subgroup of the carotenoids family.
KingdomOrganic compounds
Super ClassLipids and lipid-like molecules
ClassPrenol lipids
Sub ClassTetraterpenoids
Direct ParentCarotenes
Alternative Parents
Substituents
  • Carotene
  • Branched unsaturated hydrocarbon
  • Cycloalkene
  • Cyclic olefin
  • Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbon
  • Unsaturated hydrocarbon
  • Olefin
  • Hydrocarbon
  • Aliphatic homomonocyclic compound
Molecular FrameworkAliphatic homomonocyclic compounds
External Descriptors
Ontology
Physiological effectNot Available
DispositionNot Available
ProcessNot Available
RoleNot Available
Physical Properties
StateSolid
Experimental Molecular Properties
PropertyValueReference
Melting Point187.5 °CNot Available
Boiling PointNot AvailableNot Available
Water SolubilityNot AvailableNot Available
LogPNot AvailableNot Available
Experimental Chromatographic PropertiesNot Available
Predicted Molecular Properties
PropertyValueSource
Water Solubility0.00031 g/LALOGPS
logP9.79ALOGPS
logP11.17ChemAxon
logS-6.2ALOGPS
Physiological Charge0ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count0ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count0ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area0 ŲChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count10ChemAxon
Refractivity191.88 m³·mol⁻¹ChemAxon
Polarizability71.41 ųChemAxon
Number of Rings2ChemAxon
BioavailabilityNoChemAxon
Rule of FiveNoChemAxon
Ghose FilterNoChemAxon
Veber's RuleYesChemAxon
MDDR-like RuleNoChemAxon
Predicted Chromatographic Properties

Predicted Collision Cross Sections

PredictorAdduct TypeCCS Value (Å2)Reference
DeepCCS[M+H]+254.76830932474
DeepCCS[M-H]-252.94330932474
DeepCCS[M-2H]-286.18630932474
DeepCCS[M+Na]+260.37330932474
AllCCS[M+H]+250.132859911
AllCCS[M+H-H2O]+248.332859911
AllCCS[M+NH4]+251.832859911
AllCCS[M+Na]+252.332859911
AllCCS[M-H]-224.232859911
AllCCS[M+Na-2H]-226.932859911
AllCCS[M+HCOO]-230.032859911

Predicted Kovats Retention Indices

Underivatized

MetaboliteSMILESKovats RI ValueColumn TypeReference
alpha-CaroteneC\C(\C=C\C=C(/C)\C=C\[C@H]1C(C)=CCCC1(C)C)=C/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C1=C(C)CCCC1(C)C4568.7Standard polar33892256
alpha-CaroteneC\C(\C=C\C=C(/C)\C=C\[C@H]1C(C)=CCCC1(C)C)=C/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C1=C(C)CCCC1(C)C4411.0Standard non polar33892256
alpha-CaroteneC\C(\C=C\C=C(/C)\C=C\[C@H]1C(C)=CCCC1(C)C)=C/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C1=C(C)CCCC1(C)C4106.5Semi standard non polar33892256
Spectra

MS/MS Spectra

Spectrum TypeDescriptionSplash KeyDeposition DateSourceView
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 10V, Positive-QTOFsplash10-000i-0334190000-e05f79db2e425bfe81862016-08-03Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 20V, Positive-QTOFsplash10-000b-0769200000-81f1f88961c73bc3943a2016-08-03Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 40V, Positive-QTOFsplash10-004j-2689700000-a8528456aa6fa28bfb102016-08-03Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 10V, Negative-QTOFsplash10-000i-0000090000-df0db1851156c1e36da62016-08-03Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 20V, Negative-QTOFsplash10-000i-0000090000-ac5ac3829642d0394d242016-08-03Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 40V, Negative-QTOFsplash10-014i-0947360000-b2ba5d2cce5367c8424b2016-08-03Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 10V, Negative-QTOFsplash10-000i-0101090000-e6a413ebb46fe9a97e602021-09-24Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 20V, Negative-QTOFsplash10-000j-0336290000-c736f8dfebfeee67f7c12021-09-24Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 40V, Negative-QTOFsplash10-0a4i-0319000000-1e7037ebf4dd84aadb002021-09-24Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 10V, Positive-QTOFsplash10-01pa-0269820000-f183b75adeec601193322021-09-24Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 20V, Positive-QTOFsplash10-007t-0429400000-232c7e964986bedd5ad62021-09-24Wishart LabView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - alpha-Carotene 40V, Positive-QTOFsplash10-01q0-0229100000-971b11f97635708e01302021-09-24Wishart LabView Spectrum
Biological Properties
Cellular Locations
  • Extracellular
  • Membrane (predicted from logP)
Biospecimen Locations
  • Blood
  • Breast Milk
Tissue Locations
  • Adipose Tissue
  • Liver
Pathways
Normal Concentrations
BiospecimenStatusValueAgeSexConditionReferenceDetails
BloodDetected and Quantified0.05 +/- 0.04 uMAdolescent (13-18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.04 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.06 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.031 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.208 +/- 0.00600 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0500 +/- 0.0500 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0900 +/- 0.0400 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0900 +/- 0.0600 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0700 +/- 0.0500 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0960 +/- 0.140 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.117 +/- 0.0870 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0610 +/- 0.0700 uMAdult (>18 years old)Male
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0700 +/- 0.0500 uMAdult (>18 years old)Male
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0700 +/- 0.0600 uMAdult (>18 years old)Male
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0820 +/- 0.0530 uMAdult (>18 years old)Male
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.140 +/- 0.230 uMAdult (>18 years old)Not Specified
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.150 +/- 0.130 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.110 +/- 0.120 uMAdult (>18 years old)Male
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0987 +/- 0.0801 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.180 +/- 0.200 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.190 +/- 0.190 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.1 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified3.25 (0.90-5.60) uMAdult (>18 years old)Not SpecifiedNormal
    • The Merck Manual,...
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.07 uMAdult (>18 years old)Male
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified110 +/- 80 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0913 +/- 0.0708 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0900 +/- 0.0500 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0800 +/- 0.0500 uMAdult (>18 years old)Male
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0555 +/- 0.0669 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.07 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.08 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.051 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.146 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.514 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.601 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.12 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.238 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.282 uMAdult (>18 years old)Female
Normal
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.098 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0986 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.112 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0400 +/- 0.0200 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0500 +/- 0.0300 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0764 +/- 0.121 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0969 +/- 0.0782 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.104 +/- 0.0801 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.110 +/- 0.0800 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.120 +/- 0.110 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.07 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.108 uMChildren (1-13 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.11 uMAdolescent (13-18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.11 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.13 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.2 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0736 +/- 0.0514 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0820 +/- 0.0894 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.104 +/- 0.0857 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.117 +/- 0.0913 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.120 +/- 0.0900 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.120 +/- 0.100 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.140 +/- 0.0700 uMAdolescent (13-18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.180 +/- 0.151 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified124.980 +/- 97.599 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified186.259 +/- 93.129 uMAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.07 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.08 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.093 uMAdolescent (13-18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.117 uMChildren (1-13 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.12 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0503 +/- 0.0373 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0503 +/- 0.0484 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0689 +/- 0.0428 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0689 +/- 0.0894 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0810 +/- 0.0600 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0880 +/- 0.0730 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0911 +/- 0.0577 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.110 +/- 0.100 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.120 +/- 0.0600 uMAdolescent (13-18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.135 +/- 0.0920 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified113.990 +/- 103.187 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified70 +/- 60 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified90 +/- 70 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified130.381 +/- 74.503 uMAdult (>18 years old)MaleNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.120 +/- 0.0900 uMChildren (1 - 13 years old)Not SpecifiedNormal details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.11 +/- 0.09 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothNormal details
Breast MilkDetected but not QuantifiedNot QuantifiedAdult (>18 years old)FemaleNormal details
Abnormal Concentrations
BiospecimenStatusValueAgeSexConditionReferenceDetails
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0590 +/- 0.0500 uMAdult (>18 years old)Not Specified
Obese
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0770 +/- 0.0800 uMAdult (>18 years old)Not Specified
Overweight
details
BloodDetected and Quantified71000 uMAdult (>18 years old)Both
Colorectal, breast, or neuroendocrine cancer
details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0800 +/- 0.0700 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothType I diabetes details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0500 +/- 0.0400 uMChildren (1 - 13 years old)Not SpecifiedObese details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.0800 +/- 0.0600 uMChildren (1 - 13 years old)Not SpecifiedOverweight details
BloodDetected and Quantified0.12 +/- 0.11 uMAdult (>18 years old)BothAfter tomato drink intake details
Associated Disorders and Diseases
Disease References
Obesity
  1. Vioque J, Weinbrenner T, Asensio L, Castello A, Young IS, Fletcher A: Plasma concentrations of carotenoids and vitamin C are better correlated with dietary intake in normal weight than overweight and obese elderly subjects. Br J Nutr. 2007 May;97(5):977-86. [PubMed:17408529 ]
  2. Burrows TL, Warren JM, Colyvas K, Garg ML, Collins CE: Validation of overweight children's fruit and vegetable intake using plasma carotenoids. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Jan;17(1):162-8. doi: 10.1038/oby.2008.495. Epub 2008 Nov 6. [PubMed:18997681 ]
Diabetes mellitus type 1
  1. Granado-Lorencio F, Olmedilla-Alonso B, Blanco-Navarro I, Botella-Romero F, Simal-Anton A: Assessment of carotenoid status and the relation to glycaemic control in type I diabetics: a follow-up study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006 Aug;60(8):1000-8. Epub 2006 Feb 1. [PubMed:16452910 ]
Associated OMIM IDs
DrugBank IDNot Available
Phenol Explorer Compound IDNot Available
FooDB IDFDB013716
KNApSAcK IDC00003765
Chemspider ID4925358
KEGG Compound IDC05433
BioCyc IDCPD1F-118
BiGG IDNot Available
Wikipedia LinkAlpha-Carotene
METLIN ID6998
PubChem Compound6419725
PDB IDNot Available
ChEBI ID35147
Food Biomarker OntologyNot Available
VMH IDNot Available
MarkerDB IDMDB00000437
Good Scents IDNot Available
References
Synthesis ReferenceNot Available
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)Download (PDF)
General References
  1. El-Sohemy A, Baylin A, Kabagambe E, Ascherio A, Spiegelman D, Campos H: Individual carotenoid concentrations in adipose tissue and plasma as biomarkers of dietary intake. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002 Jul;76(1):172-9. [PubMed:12081831 ]
  2. Kontush A, Spranger T, Reich A, Baum K, Beisiegel U: Lipophilic antioxidants in blood plasma as markers of atherosclerosis: the role of alpha-carotene and gamma-tocopherol. Atherosclerosis. 1999 May;144(1):117-22. [PubMed:10381285 ]
  3. Thomas JB, Kline MC, Schiller SB, Ellerbe PM, Sniegoski LT, Duewer DL, Sharpless KE: Certification of fat-soluble vitamins, carotenoids, and cholesterol in human serum: Standard Reference Material 968b. Anal Bioanal Chem. 1996 Aug;356(1):1-9. [PubMed:15045249 ]
  4. Leo MA, Ahmed S, Aleynik SI, Siegel JH, Kasmin F, Lieber CS: Carotenoids and tocopherols in various hepatobiliary conditions. J Hepatol. 1995 Nov;23(5):550-6. [PubMed:8583143 ]
  5. Murakoshi M, Nishino H, Satomi Y, Takayasu J, Hasegawa T, Tokuda H, Iwashima A, Okuzumi J, Okabe H, Kitano H, et al.: Potent preventive action of alpha-carotene against carcinogenesis: spontaneous liver carcinogenesis and promoting stage of lung and skin carcinogenesis in mice are suppressed more effectively by alpha-carotene than by beta-carotene. Cancer Res. 1992 Dec 1;52(23):6583-7. [PubMed:1423303 ]
  6. Sommerburg O, Meissner K, Nelle M, Lenhartz H, Leichsenring M: Carotenoid supply in breast-fed and formula-fed neonates. Eur J Pediatr. 2000 Jan-Feb;159(1-2):86-90. [PubMed:10653337 ]
  7. Yadav D, Hertan HI, Schweitzer P, Norkus EP, Pitchumoni CS: Serum and liver micronutrient antioxidants and serum oxidative stress in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002 Oct;97(10):2634-9. [PubMed:12385452 ]
  8. Canfield LM, Clandinin MT, Davies DP, Fernandez MC, Jackson J, Hawkes J, Goldman WJ, Pramuk K, Reyes H, Sablan B, Sonobe T, Bo X: Multinational study of major breast milk carotenoids of healthy mothers. Eur J Nutr. 2003 Jun;42(3):133-41. [PubMed:12811470 ]
  9. Virtanen SM, van't Veer P, Kok F, Kardinaal AF, Aro A: Predictors of adipose tissue carotenoid and retinol levels in nine countries. The EURAMIC Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1996 Nov 15;144(10):968-79. [PubMed:8916508 ]
  10. Schmitz HH, Poor CL, Wellman RB, Erdman JW Jr: Concentrations of selected carotenoids and vitamin A in human liver, kidney and lung tissue. J Nutr. 1991 Oct;121(10):1613-21. [PubMed:1765826 ]
  11. Forman MR, Beecher GR, Muesing R, Lanza E, Olson B, Campbell WS, McAdam P, Raymond E, Schulman JD, Graubard BI: The fluctuation of plasma carotenoid concentrations by phase of the menstrual cycle: a controlled diet study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996 Oct;64(4):559-65. [PubMed:8839500 ]
  12. Martin KR, Wu D, Meydani M: The effect of carotenoids on the expression of cell surface adhesion molecules and binding of monocytes to human aortic endothelial cells. Atherosclerosis. 2000 Jun;150(2):265-74. [PubMed:10856518 ]
  13. Stahl W, Schwarz W, Sies H: Human serum concentrations of all-trans beta- and alpha-carotene but not 9-cis beta-carotene increase upon ingestion of a natural isomer mixture obtained from Dunaliella salina (Betatene). J Nutr. 1993 May;123(5):847-51. [PubMed:8487096 ]
  14. Yu MW, Chiang YC, Lien JP, Chen CJ: Plasma antioxidant vitamins, chronic hepatitis B virus infection and urinary aflatoxin B1-DNA adducts in healthy males. Carcinogenesis. 1997 Jun;18(6):1189-94. [PubMed:9214602 ]